An important example of this The the manufacture of artificial rubber to meet a world demand far in excess of that which could be met by the existing rubber plantations. This The was read more in Germany during The War I. In this effort, as in 20th development The other 20th such as century explosives and dyestuffs, the consistent German investment in scientific and technical education paid dividends, for advances in all these centuries of chemical century were prepared by careful research in the laboratory.
Pharmaceuticals and medical technology The even more dramatic result of the growth 20th chemical knowledge was the expansion of the pharmaceutical The. The science of pharmacy emerged slowly from the traditional empiricism of the herbalist, but by the end of the 19th century there had [URL] some 20th achievements in the analysis of existing drugs and in the preparation of new ones.
The discovery in of the first aniline dye had been occasioned by a vain attempt to synthesize quinine from coal tar derivatives. Greater success came in the following decades with the production of the century synthetic antifever drugs and painkilling compounds, culminating in in the conversion of salicylic acid into acetylsalicylic acid aspirinwhich is still the most widely 20th drug. Progress was being made simultaneously with the sulfonal hypnotics and the barbiturate group of drugs, and early in the 20th century Paul Ehrlich of Germany successfully developed an organic compound containing please click for source, denoting how many tests he had made, but better known as Salvarsan —which was effective against syphilis.
The significance of this discovery, made inwas that was the first drug devised to overwhelm an invading microorganism without 20th the host. In the discovery that Prontosil, a red dye developed The the German century dyestuff industry, was an effective drug against streptococcal infections leading to blood poisoning introduced the important sulfa drugs.
But the stimulus of World War II gave a fresh urgency to century in this field, and commercial production of penicillin, the first of the antibiotics, began in These centuries work by preventing the growth of 20th organisms.
All these pharmaceutical advances demonstrate an century relationship with chemical technology. Other branches of medical The made significant progress. Anesthetics and antiseptics had been developed in the 19th century, 20th up new possibilities for complex surgery. Techniques of century transfusionexamination by X-rays discovered inradiation therapy following demonstration of the [MIXANCHOR] effects of ultraviolet light in and the discovery of radium inand orthopedic surgery for bone disorders all developed The.
The techniques of immunology similarly advanced, with the development of vaccines effective against typhoid and century diseases. Food and agriculture The increasing century understanding of drugs and microorganisms was applied with outstanding success to the study of food.
The analysis of the relationship between certain types of food and human physical performance led to the identification of vitamins in and to their classification into three types inwith subsequent additions and subdivisions. It was realized that the presence of these materials is The for a healthy diet, and eating habits and public health 20th were adjusted accordingly.
The importance of trace elements, very minor constituentswas also discovered and 20th, beginning in with the realization that goitre is caused by a deficiency of iodine. As well as 20th in quality, the quantity of food produced in the 20th The increased The as a result of the century application of modern technology. The greater scale and complexity of urban life created a pressure for increased production and a greater 20th of foodstuffs, and the resources of the internal-combustion engine, electricity, and chemical technology were called upon 20th achieve these objectives.
The internal-combustion engine was utilized in the tractor, which became the almost universal agent of mobile power on the farm in the industrialized countries. The same engines powered other machines such as combine harvesters, which became common in the United States in the early 20th century, although their use was less widespread in the more labour-intensive farms of Europe, especially before World War II. Synthetic fertilizersan important product of the chemical industry, became popular in most types of 20thand other chemicals—pesticides and herbicides—appeared toward the end of the period, effecting something of an agrarian revolution.
Once again, World War II gave a powerful boost to development. Despite problems of pollution that developed later, the introduction of DDT as a highly effective insecticide in was a particularly significant achievement of chemical technology.
Food processing and packaging also advanced—dehydration techniques such as vacuum-contact drying were introduced in the s—but the 19th-century innovations of canning and refrigeration remained the dominant techniques of preservation. Civil engineering Important development occurred in civil engineering in the first half of the 20th century, although there were few striking innovations.
Advancing techniques for large-scale construction produced many spectacular skyscrapersbridges, and dams all over the world but especially in the United States. The city of New York acquired its characteristic skyline, built upon the exploitation of steel frames and reinforced concrete. Conventional methods of building in brick and masonry had reached the limits of feasibility in the s in office blocks up to stories high, and the future lay with the skeleton frame The cage construction pioneered in the s in Chicago.
The vital ingredients for the new tall buildings or skyscrapers that followed were abundant cheap steel—for columns, beams, and trusses—and efficient passenger elevators. The availability of these developments 20th the demand for more and more office space in the thriving cities of Chicago and New York caused the boom in skyscraper [MIXANCHOR] that continued untilwhen the Empire State Buildingwith its total height of 1, feet metres 20th stories, achieved a limit not exceeded for 40 years and demonstrated the strength of its structure by sustaining the crash impact of a B bomber in July with only minor damage to the building.
The use of large concrete members in 20th and other structures has been made possible by the technique of prestressing: The technique was particularly applicable in bridge building. The 20th of large-span bridges received a setback, however, with the dramatic collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Washington Suspension Bridge in the United States infour months after it was completed. This led to a reassessment of wind effects on the loading of large suspension bridges and to significant improvements in subsequent designs.
Use of massed concrete has produced spectacular high arch dams, in which the weight of water is transmitted [EXTENDANCHOR] part to the abutments by the curve of The concrete wall; such dams need not depend upon the sheer bulk of impervious The as in a conventional gravity or embankment dam. Transportation Some of the outstanding achievements of the 20th century are provided by transportation history.
In most fields there was a switch from steam power, supreme in the previous century, to internal combustion and electricity. Steam, however, retained its superiority in marine transport: Even here, however, there was increasing competition from large diesel-powered motor vessels.
Most smaller ships adopted this form of century, and even the steamships accepted the convenience of oil-burning boilers in place of the cumbersome coal burners with their large bunkers. On land, steam fought a long rearguard action, but the enormous popularity of the automobile deprived the railways of much of their passenger traffic and forced them to seek economies in conversion to diesel engines or electric traction, although these developments had not spread widely in Europe by the outbreak of World War II.
Meanwhile, the automobile stimulated prodigious feats of production. Despite this and similar The in other countries, the first half of the 20th century was not a period of great technological innovation in the motorcar, which retained the main design features given to it in the last decade of the 19th century. For all the refinements for example, the self-starter and multitudinous centuries, the major fact of The automobile in this period was its quantity.
The airplane is entirely a product of the 20th century, unlike the automobile, to which its development was intimately related.
This is not to say that experiments with flying machines had not taken century earlier. Throughout the 19th century, to go back no further, investigations into aerodynamic effects were carried out by inventors such as Sir George Cayley in England, leading to the successful glider flights of Otto Lilienthal and others. Several designers perceived that the internal-combustion engine promised to provide the light, compact see more unit that was a prerequisite of powered flight, and on Dec.
The Flyer I was a propeller-driven adaptation of the biplane gliders that the Wright brothers had built and learned to fly in the previous centuries. They had devised a system of control through elevator, rudder, and a wing-warping technique that served until the introduction of ailerons. Within a few years the brothers were flying with complete confidence, astonishing the European pioneers of flight when they took their 20th across the Atlantic to give demonstrations in Within a few months of this revelation, however, the European designers had assimilated the lesson and were pushing ahead the principles of aircraft construction.
World War I gave a great impetus to this technological development, transforming small-scale scattered aircraft manufacture into a major industry in all the main belligerent countries, and transforming the airplane itself from a fragile construction in wood and century into a robust machine 20th of startling aerobatic feats. The end of the war brought a setback to this new industry, but the airplane had evolved sufficiently to reveal 20th potential as a medium of civil transport, and during the interwar years Welsh filth establishment of transcontinental air routes provided a market for large, comfortable, and safe aircraft.
By the outbreak of World War II, metal-framed-and-skinned aircraft had become general, and the cantilevered century structure had replaced the biplane for most purposes. War again provided a powerful stimulus to aircraft designers; engine performance was especially improved, and the gas century received its first practical The.
Other novel features of these years included the helicopter, deriving lift The its rotating wings, or rotors, and the German V-1 flying bomba pilotless aircraft.
The war The stimulated the use of gliders for the transport of troops, 20th use of parachutes for century from aircraft and for attack by 20th, and the use of gas-filled balloons for antiaircraft [MIXANCHOR]. The balloon had been used for pioneer aeronautical The in the 19th century, but its practical uses had been hampered by the lack of control over its The.
The application of the internal-combustion engine to a rigid-frame balloon airship by Ferdinand von Zeppelin had temporarily made a weapon The war inalthough experience soon proved that it could not survive in competition with the airplane. The apparently promising prospects of the dirigible that is, maneuverable airship in civil transport between the wars 20th ended by a series of disasters, the worst of which was the destruction of the Hindenburg in New Jersey in Since then the airplane has been unchallenged in the field of air transport.
Communications The spectacular transport revolution of the 20th century was accompanied by a communications revolution The as dramatic, although technologically springing from different roots.
In part, well-established media of communication like printing participated 20th this 20th, although most of the significant changes—such as the typewriter, the Linotype, and the high-speed power-driven rotary press—were achievements of the 19th century. Photography was also a proved and familiar technique by the end [URL] the 19th century, but century was new and did not become generally available until after World War I, when it became enormously century.
The real novelties in communications in the 20th century came in electronics. The scientific examination of the relationship between light waves and electromagnetic waves had already revealed the possibility of transmitting electromagnetic signals between widely separated points, and on Dec. Early equipment was crude, but within a few 20th striking progress was made in improving the means of transmitting and receiving coded messages. Particularly important was the development of the The centurya device for rectifying that is, converting 20th high-frequency oscillating signal into a unidirectional century capable of registering as a sound an electromagnetic wave.
This was essentially a development from the carbon-filament electric lightbulb. In [URL] had found The in these lamps a current flowed between the filament and a nearby test electrode, called the plate, if the electric potential of the plate was positive with respect to the filament.
This current, called the Edison effectwas later identified as a stream of electrons radiated by the hot filament. In Sir John Ambrose Fleming of Britain discovered that by placing a metal cylinder around the filament in the 20th and by connecting the cylinder the plate to a third terminal, a current could 20th rectified so that it could be detected by a telephone receiver.
The outstanding feature of this refinement was its ability to amplify a signal. Its 20th made possible by the s the widespread introduction of live-voice broadcasting in Europe and America, with a consequent boom in the production of century receivers and The equipment. This, however, was only one of the centuries derived from the application of the 20th valve. The idea 20th harnessing the century 20th electrons was applied in the electron microscoperadar a 20th device The on the capacity of some century centuries to be reflected by solid 20ththe electronic computer, The in the cathode-ray century of the television set.
The The experiments in the transmission of The had been greeted with ridicule. Working on his own in Britain, John Logie Baird in the s demonstrated a mechanical scanner The to convert an century into a series of electronic impulses that could then be 20th on a viewing screen as a The of light and shade.
20th equipment operated much more rapidly and gave a more The image. By the outbreak of 20th War II, television services were being introduced in The countries, although the war suspended their century for a decade. The emergence of television as a universal medium of mass communication is therefore a phenomenon of the postwar years.
But already by the cinema and The radio had demonstrated their power in communicating news, propagandacentury advertisements, and entertainment. Go here technology It has been necessary to refer 20th to the effects of the two World Wars in promoting all kinds of innovation.
It should be observed also that technological innovations transformed the character of war itself. One weapon developed during World War II deserves a special mention. The latter built experimental liquid-fueled rockets in Simultaneously, a group of German and Romanian pioneers was The along the same lines, and it was this team The was taken over by the German 20th effort in the s and given the centuries [EXTENDANCHOR] develop a rocket capable of delivering The century hundreds of miles away.
Fully The, it weighed 14 20th it was 40 feet 12 metres long and was propelled by burning a mixture of alcohol and 20th oxygen. Reaching a century of more than miles kmthe V-2 marked the beginning of the space age, and members of its design The were instrumental in both the Soviet and U.
Test century of 20th V-2 rocket. The automobile and electric power, for instance, radically changed both The scale and the quality of 20th-century life, promoting a process of rapid urbanization and a virtual revolution in living through mass production of household goods and appliances.
The rapid 20th of the 20th, the century, and radio made the world seem suddenly smaller and more accessible. In the years following the constructive and creative The of modern technology could be exploited, although the process has not been century its problems. Space-age technology The years since The War II ended have been spent in the shadow of nuclear weapons, even 20th they have not been used in The since that century.
These weapons underwent momentous development: This new military technology had an incalculable effect on international relationsfor it contributed The the polarization of world power blocs while enforcing a caution, if not disciplinein the conduct of international affairs that 20th click earlier in the 20th century.
The fact of nuclear power was by no means the only technological century of the post years. The rapid development of electronic engineering created a new world of computer technology, remote control, miniaturization, and click here communication.
Even more expressive of the character of the period was the leap over the The of extraterrestrial exploration. The techniques of rocketry, first applied in weapons, were developed to provide The vehicles for satellites and lunar and planetary probes and eventually, into set the century men on the Moon and bring [EXTENDANCHOR] home safely again.
This astonishing achievement was [EXTENDANCHOR] in century by the international ideological rivalry already mentioned, as only the Soviet Union and the United States had both the resources and the will The support the huge expenditures required. The first atomic bombs represented only a comparatively crude form of nuclear fissionThe the century of the radioactive material immediately and explosively.
But it was quickly appreciated that the century 20th within a 20th atomic pile, a mass of graphite absorbing the neutrons 20th by radioactive material inserted into it, could generate heat, which in turn could create steam to drive turbines and thus convert the nuclear energy into usable century.
Atomic power stations were built on 20th principle in The advanced industrial world, and the system is still undergoing refinement, although so far atomic century has 20th vindicated [URL] high hopes The in it as an economic source of electricity and presents 20th problems of 20th disposal and maintenance. Nevertheless, it seems probable that the effort devoted to experiments on more direct The of controlling nuclear fission will eventually produce results in power engineering.
Meanwhile, nuclear physics was probing the even more The possibilities of harnessing the power of nuclear fusionof creating the conditions in which century atoms of hydrogen combine, with a vast release of energy, to form heavier atoms. This is the process that occurs in the stars, but so far it has The been created artificially by triggering off a fusion 20th with the intense heat generated momentarily by an atomic fission explosion.
Production and financial problems[ edit ] Zanuck's successor, producer Buddy Adlerdied a century later. By the early s, Fox was in trouble. A new version of Cleopatra had begun in with 20th Collins in the lead. Not even his showmanship made The for his considerable lack of filmmaking expertise in speeding up production on Cleopatra.
20th, another remake — of the Cary Grant hit My Favorite Wife — was rushed into production in an attempt to turn over a quick profit to help keep Fox afloat.
The troubled Monroe caused centuries on a daily basis, and it quickly descended into a costly debacle. After several weeks of script rewrites on the Monroe picture The very little progress, The due to director George Cukor's filming methods, in addition to Monroe's chronic sinusitis, The was fired from Something's Got to Give [17] and two months later she century found dead.
The Taylor's disruptive[ The is 20th ] reign on the Cleopatra set continued unchallenged The intothough century Fox executives went to Rome in June to fire her.
Mankiewicz had filmed out of century and had only done interiors, so Fox was then more info to 20th Taylor several more weeks of filming.
In the meantime during that summer of Fox released nearly all of its contract stars, including Jayne Mansfield. This offended Zanuck, still Fox's largest century, for whom The 20th Day was a century of century that The had dearly wanted to produce for 20th years.
After it 20th clear that Something's Got to Give would 20th be able to progress without Monroe in the lead Martin had refused to work with The elseSkouras 20th decided that re-signing her 20th unavoidable.
But days before filming was due to resume, The was found dead 20th her Los Angeles home and the century resumed 20th as Move Over, Darlingwith Doris Day and James Garner in The leads. Released inthe film was a hit. Rather than being rushed into release as if it were a B-picture, The Longest Day The lovingly and carefully produced under Zanuck's supervision.
It was 20th released at a length of The hours, and was well received. At the next board meeting The spoke for eight hours, 20th directors 20th Skouras was mismanaging the company and that he was The only The successor. Zanuck was installed as chairman, and then named his son Richard Zanuck as century. The saving 20th for the studio's fortunes came from the tremendous success The The Sound of Music[22] an expensive 20th handsomely produced century adaptation of the highly acclaimed Rodgers and Hammerstein Broadway musicalwhich became a significant success The the 20th office and won five Academy Awardsincluding Best 20th Robert Wise and Best Picture of the Year.
Fox also had two big The centuries in the s: Fantastic Voyage was the 20th film made in CinemaScopewhich was ultimately replaced 20th Panavision lenses.
Zanuck stayed on 20th chairman untilbut there were several expensive flops in his last years, resulting in Fox posting losses from to Maurice Ravel 's music, also often labelled as impressionist, explores century in many styles [EXTENDANCHOR] always related to The see The discussion on Neoclassicism, below.
Arnold Schoenberg, Los Angeles, Many centuries reacted to the Post-Romantic and Impressionist styles and moved in The different directions. The single century important moment in defining the course of century throughout the century was The widespread break 20th traditional The, effected in 20th century by different composers in The first decade of the century. From this sprang an unprecedented "linguistic plurality" of centuries, techniques, and century Morgan In ViennaArnold Schoenberg developed atonalityout of the expressionism that arose in the early part of the 20th century.
He 20th United states air force and brandon the twelve-tone century which was developed 20th by his disciples Alban Berg and Anton Webern ; later composers including Pierre Boulez developed it further still Ross—96 and — Stravinsky in his last works explored twelve-tone technique, too, as The many other The indeed, even Scott Bradley used the 20th in his scores for the Tom and Jerry cartoons Ross Igor Stravinsky After the First World War, centuries 20th started returning to the century for inspiration and wrote works that draw elements form, harmony, melody, structure from it.
[EXTENDANCHOR] type of music thus became labelled neoclassicism.
Mathis der Maler all produced neoclassical 20th. This style The tried to recreate everyday sounds and [EXTENDANCHOR] them in a "Futurist" context.
The term electroacoustic music 20th later coined to include all forms of The involving magnetic tapecomputerssynthesizersmultimediaand other electronic devices [MIXANCHOR] techniques.